Athens Moves Toward Democracy

Democracy Part 3: Aristotle's Polity or the Liberal Order

The period following the Greek “Dark Ages” is known as Archaic Greece, covering between 800 and 480 BC. The absolute kingdoms were gone, replaced by a system of rule by oligarchs whose power rested on large land holdings farmed by commoners.

The landlords ruled through the Council of the Areopagos, As Aristotle pointed out, there was constant conflict between the powerful families, and the rule by tyrants was common.Tyrants came from powerful families and usually had the backing of the majority in the Assembly. Sometimes they seized power with military support from outside Athens.  

At the same time Greece developed a political system based on city states with their colonies. Greece was also unique in having a class of independent family farmers. Many city states created popular assemblies to give voice to this class.

Solon’s reforms of 594 B. C.

There was constant conflict between the powerful oligarchs who also faced class struggle with the hoplites and tenant farmers. This led the oligarchs to seek a political solution. They chose Solon, an aristocrat, but not a wealthy landlord, to be a special arkhon. He was to propose both political and economic reforms. The Areopagos guaranteed that they would accept his reforms for ten years.

The economic reforms were far reaching:

(1) Debts could not be cancelled through personal slavery;

(2) land held by tenants could not be seized to pay for debt; and

(3) all mortgaged land was returned and existing mortgages were cancelled. These reforms constituted a major financial loss for the large land owners.

Political reforms:

In an effort to reduce political strife, Solon created four property classes for Athens:

(1) At the top were the largest land owners who on their estates produced enough food and drink for about fifteen families.

(2) The second class were landlords who served as cavalry men when there were wars.

(3) The “yoke men” were the farmer hoplites who in the army were paired in a phalanx of the infantry formation.

(4) At the bottom were the thetes, who were hired labour or serfs with little land or other assets. Greek scholars have estimated that this class represented around 50% of the citizens of Athens.

Political institutions:

The arkhon system was kept as a privileged executive institution A new Council of 400 was created, to be chosen by each of the four historic tribes, 100 each, chosen from from the top three property classes. It oversaw state administration and acted as the executive of the Assembly, which was reformed and opened to the fourth class. But it had limited powers.

The court system was the most democratic institution, as members of all four property classes

could serve as jurors, and all citizens could challenge administrative decisions.

Aristotle: Solon created “polity” or “constitutional government.”

Aristotle, seen as the first political scientist, has had great influence among the ruling classes in Europe and North America. Like Plato, he was from the class of landed oligarchs and owned slaves. Both described democracy as “the worst form of government.” Plato preferred an absolute monarch who would be the “philosopher king,” and who would rule for the overall benefit of the state.

Aristotle argued that the best possible government would be one where a class of farmer property owners would rule. He argued that democracy always resulted in a government where the poor ruled for the poor, where equality was the dominant value, and “justice was the will of the majority.” Therefore, “it would be unreasonable to give the highest offices to the Many.”

“Aristotle argued that political governors should consist of “men who are equal, or nearly so, in wealth, in birth, in moral and intellectual excellence.” The middle class of farmers with property should dominate the government. He called this “polity.” Tyranny was generally rule by an oligarch who was supported, often elected, by "pandering to the mob."

Aristotle believed that many persons are born to be slaves and should have no voice in public affairs. Athens was right to restrict citizenship to those who were the children of native citizens. Women, he argued, who are “biologically inferior to men,” should have no role in public affairs. Foreigners (metics) could not become citizens nor own property. Slaves had no political rights.

The role of religion and festivals.

Greece and Athens were known for their religious cults and festivals. Many  of these emerged with the agrarian economy, as Greeks hoped  various gods would protect against bad weather, plagues and hostile populations. Every month there were major festivals and competitions. Athens benefited by hosting a number of major all-Greek festivals. These events, including political meetings, always began with the sacrifice of animals and purification ceremonies. Festivals included major parades where social groups walked wearing particular costumes. Oracles were consulted before undertaking any military operation. It is not surprising that those who questioned this tradition were often charged with impiety.

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