Athens Defines Democracy

         

Democracy Part 4: Aristotle argues that Athens is the best 

example of Greek democracy

Athens prospered under Solon’s reforms. But political conflict continued as the prominent families struggled for power. In 560 BC the citizens, in the Assembly, decided to end the conflict and voted to install Peistratos as tyrant. Three times he was removed from office by the oligarchs. The third time he returned to power with the backing of a mercenary army. He did not reverse Solon’s reforms and helped his power base with state loans paid for by a 10% tax on all farm produce. He died in 527 BC, and was replaced by his sons.

Athens: All citizens attend the Assembly

The reforms of Kleisthenes 508/7 BC

It is widely acknowledged that the reforms instituted by Kleisthenes established Athens as the most important democratic state. How he came to do this is unknown. He was a member of the Alcmaeonid family, notorius for its anti-democratic political behaviour. What role did the demos play? We do not know.

  
 A new political system

But in an attempt to break the power of the oligarchs and their economic base, Kleisthenes created a political-economic system based on ten new tribes. The three areas of Attica (the city of Athens and its two hinterland areas, the Inland and the Coast), were each divided into ten geographical sections where all citizens were registered. This structure formed the base for his democratic reforms.
 

A new executive council 
 

He created a new Council of 500 (Boule), which served as the state executive. Each tribe chose 50 members of the Council, who served for one year; each citizen could only serve twice. The thetes class (those without property) were originally excluded from this process and the Council.

The Assembly

Final political authority (or sovereignty) remained with the Assembly. They met forty times in a year at the Pynx, near the Acropolis, which could hold 6,000 people (the required quorum). Votes were by a show of hands. All who wanted to speak were called to the front platform. No one could speak more than once on an item. This rule was designed to try to restrict the power of the oligarchs, who had demonstrated their ability to sway the commoners.

Democratic Law Courts

The Law Courts created by Solon continued. Each year 6000 citizens were chosen by lot as a pool of jurors. The size of the deciding jurors varied from 200 to a maximum of 500 for important cases. Decisions were made by majority vote and secret ballot. The basic principle of Athenian democracy was the equal worth of all citizens. Democracy required citizens to actively participate. It was deemed that a large and representative jury was less likely to make the wrong decision than a small one.

The Magistrates

State administration was also to be reformed. Each year 600 magistrates were now chosen by lot, forming committees of 10, one from each tribe. No citizen could serve more than once in a lifetime. Certain magistrates were expected to have some expertise: generals, other military commanders, military training instructors, and finance officers. There were official secretaries required, and for these positions  even metics and slaves could be chosen.

There were nine arkhons elected, and they were all from the highest property class. They were primarily involved in important legal matters, but all citizens could appeal their decisions to the general courts.

Finance for Athens came largely from the silver mines which were owned by the state. There was a 2% tax on all goods that came through the main port at Peiraieus. There was an annual poll tax imposed on metics. Property taxes were assessed – mainly to construct fortifications, build warships, and prepare for war.

The general trend in the fifth century was towards expanding democratic reforms. In 487 the Assembly determined that the nine arkhons should be chosen by lot from a list of 500 submitted by the 10 tribes. In 462 the Assembly limited the powers of the Areopagos legal cases and gave the thetes the right to attend and participate in the Assembly. In 451 Pericles introduced payment for jurors, magistrates and members of the Council of 500. In 403 BC payment was expanded to citizens who attended the Assembly.

The oligarchs strongly opposed democracy

Greece at this time was ideologically divided between the oligarchs and the democrats. This is reflected in the writings of Plato and Aristotle and what we know of the political activities of Socrates. They are recognised as the founders of the idealist tradition of political philosophy. The idealist school would include all religions that insist that life was created by a supreme being.

Aristotle noted that the founding principle of democracy is equality. People are chosen for office by lot, and not by experience, property, education or leisure time. Democrats believe all should have a role in governing, and thus individuals would occupy an office for only a short time. All should be paid for their services. All adults are competent to serve on juries. The democratic Assembly, representing all citizens, should be the highest institution of authority.

However, Aristotle argued that once in office the democrats “will unjustly confiscate the property of the wealthy minority.” Taxes will be imposed in order to provide income for those performing government services. Aristotle and the oligarchs argued that there should be requirements for all holding public office; this should include education, experience, birth, leisure time, and property. There should be no payment for public service.

Democracy is “when the indigent, and not men of property, are the rulers,” he argued. The great fear is that the democrats, using lawful authority, “will decide to divide the property of the rich among themselves. “But if this is not injustice, pray what is?" (This was not done in Athens.) We should remember that “almost all tyrants have been demagoges who gained the favour of the people by their accusation of the notables.” To pay salaries to those who hold office, it is necessary to impose property taxes, make confiscations, and use the courts for “corrupt practices.”

The role of ideology: The Idealist school of political philosophy

It will be recalled that Plato strongly supported the official promotion of myths. In what is now known as “The Noble Lie” he argued that all humans are born with certain fundamental characteristics: some are fit to rule (the gold), some are born as natural helpers (the silver) but the great majority are only fit to be producers (iron and brass). This is their nature, and the guardians should not mix them up.

Plato also argued that the common people want to believe the myths of religion. They are afraid of the message being put forth by the Ionian scientists. The common good, the unity of the polis, is only achieved by propaganda, as conflict between the rich and the poor is the norm. In the pursuit of social harmony, Plato argued that rulers have a right to lie to the people. 
 

Aristotle took the view that the state should actively support the official religion. The common people had absorbed the myths and the stable of gods and goddesses. They were strongly in support of the regular religious celebrations. The support for the Ionian scientists could not have been that strong, as the Assembly expelled the well known astronomer and mathematician, Anaxagorus, in 434 BC, a good friend and associate of Pericles, for failing to support the established religion.

The Role of Competition

The oligarchs were also strong supporters of all forms of competition. We all know that the Greeks created the Olympic Games. But there were many other competitions, even in the literary area. The winners were almost always competitors from the wealthy classes. They did not have to work and had the leisure time to prepare and train.

The results supported the position of the oligarchs -- that only men with training and leisure time should should fill government positions. Furthermore, the competitions demonstrated that in real life there were few winners and a great many losers. The stress on competition was a contradiction to the democratic value of community solidarity and equality.